Ottoman Empire Society and Structure

The Ottoman Empire was organized into a very complicated social structure  because it was a large, multi-ethnic and multi-religious empire. Ottoman society was divided between Muslims and non-Muslims, with Muslims theoretically having a higher standing than Christians or Jews. During the early years of Ottoman rule, a Sunni Turkish minority ruled over a Christian majority, as well as a sizable Jewish minority. Key Christian ethnic groups included the Greeks, Armenians, and Assyrians, as well as Coptic Egyptians. As people of the Book, other monotheists were treated with respect. Under the millet system, the people of each faith were ruled and judged under their own laws: for Muslims, canon law for Christians, and halakha for Jewish citizens. Although non-Muslims sometimes paid higher taxes, and Christians were subject to the  blood tax, a tax paid in male children, there was not a lot of day-to-day differentiation between people of different faiths. In theory, non-Muslims were barred from holding high office, but enforcement of that regulation was lax during much of the Ottoman period. During the later years, non-Muslims became the minority due to secession and out-migration, but they were still treated quite equitably. By the time the Ottoman Empire collapsed after World War I, its population was 81% Muslim. Government Versus Non-Government Workers Another important social distinction was that between people who worked for the government versus people who did not. Again, theoretically, only Muslims could be part of the sultans government, although they could be converts from Christianity or Judaism. It did not matter if a person was born free or was a slave; either could rise to a position of power. People associated with the Ottoman court or divan were considered higher status than those who were not. They included members of the sultans household, army and navy officers and enlisted men, central and regional bureaucrats, scribes, teachers, judges, and lawyers, as well as members of the other professions. This entire bureaucratic machinery made up only about 10% of the population, and was overwhelmingly Turkish, although some minority groups were represented in the bureaucracy and the military through the devshirme system. Members of the governing class ranged from the sultan and his grand vizier, through regional governors and officers of the Janissary corps, down to nisanci or court calligrapher.  The government became known collectively as the Sublime Porte, after the gate to the administrative building complex. The remaining 90% of the population were the tax-payers who supported the elaborate Ottoman bureaucracy. They included skilled and unskilled laborers, such as farmers, tailors, merchants, carpet-makers, mechanics, etc. The vast majority of the sultans Christian and Jewish subjects fell into this category. According to Muslim tradition, the government should welcome the conversion of any subject who was willing to become Muslim. However, since Muslims paid lower taxes than members of other religions, ironically it was in the Ottoman divans interests to have the largest possible number of non-Muslim subjects. A mass conversion would have spelled economic disaster for the Ottoman Empire. In Summary Essentially, then, the Ottoman Empire had a small but elaborate government bureaucracy, made up almost entirely of Muslims, most of them of Turkish origin. This divan was supported by a large cohort of mixed religion and ethnicity, mostly farmers, who paid taxes to the central government. Source Sugar, Peter. Ottoman Social and State Structure. Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule, 1354 - 1804. University of Washington Press, 1977.

The s Message Of Race And Identity By Mark Twain Essay

Though scholars have primarily focused study of Pudd’nhead Wilson on the novel’s messages of race and identity, Mark Twain wrote into it an examination of scientific values versus natural values. Much of the book concerns itself with the title character’s methods of detection, and in the character of Pudd’nhead Wilson the reader finds a strong critique of scientific positivism. In the employment of natural scenery for certain human action, man’s misuse of nature is criticized. Likewise, the conclusion of the novel also focuses on social manipulation of natural processes, with a pessimistic conclusion. Pudd’nhead Wilson rejects the interference of social construction and scientific interpretation in man’s experience with nature. â€Å"Pudd’nhead† Wilson is the symbol of science in all its shortcomings and excesses. The narrator’s attitude toward Wilson is not truculent, but it does highlight the aspects of this protanganist that are highly unflattering. The reader knows Wilson to possess â€Å"Scotch patience and pluck† (27), and he is able to solve the murder of York Driscoll. Yet, his scientific experiments are often of dubious value and his detective skill is impaired by a â€Å"remakable blindness† (Porter 163) to Tom and Roxana’s scheme. He is first introduced as a bit of a dilletante: â€Å"He had a rich abundance of idle time, but it never hung heavy on his hands, for he interested himself in every new thing that was born into the universe of ideas† (27). 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Burmese Days an Example of Imperialism Free Essays

Burmese Days: An Example of Imperialism Nineteenth century industrialization brought new riches and power to Western Europe, driving the expansion of opportunities and the building of empires in undeveloped territories. Although the developed countries brought many modern technologies to under-developed nations, they also brought fierce racism and European arrogance. Burmese Days by George Orwell was written in 1834 as a satirical view of English imperial life in Burma. We will write a custom essay sample on Burmese Days: an Example of Imperialism or any similar topic only for you Order Now Orwell provides a realistic observation of the arrogance the English demonstrated towards the natives and how they justified their actions. Europeans brought many new technologies to the countries that they imperialized. They built railroads and other types of infrastructure, and they brought new technology in weaponry and manufacturing. However, it seems that their extreme arrogance had the most impact on the native people. Cecil Rhoads epitomizes the attitude of all Europeans when he says â€Å"I contend that we are the finest race in the world and that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is† (Hunt et al 802). Although Orwell’s characters in Burmese Days are English, the attitude was not exclusive to the English. Hunt et al discusses how King Leopold of Belgium claimed the Congo region of central Africa â€Å"inflicting on local Africans unparalleled acts of cruelty† (801). The fact that the Europeans thought themselves superior to all other races seems to give them permission to treat the native people in any manner they choose. Ellis is an example of an extreme racist in Orwell’s work. Ellis is a member of the European Club, a manager at the timber company, and is the most outspoken and obviously racist character in the novel. He spews forth a diatribe of foul language and name calling directed towards the Burmese people at every opportunity. No one can reason with him or change his attitude, as he is completely blind to any endearing qualities of the native people. He is very resentful of Flory, the protagonist, who has an affection for the Burmese and who considers Burma his home. Although Flory has a fondness towards the Burmese people, he still considers himself superior to them which is especially demonstrated through his interactions his Mistress, Ma Hla May. On the day he meets Elizabeth, when Ma Hla May shows up he tells her â€Å"Go away this instant. If you make any trouble I will afterwards take a bamboo and beat you till not one of your ribs is whole† (Orwell 87). It is doubtful that he would carry through with the beating, but the threat demonstrates his feeling of superiority. The attitudes of the English are wrong, but perhaps understandable. They assume that because the Burmese are not educated in the same manner as the English, they are not as intelligent. Since the country is not industrialized they have no ambition. Since they are mild mannered and do not fight the English (who have guns), they have surrendered to their natural place in society. Since their skin is brown instead of white, they are not beautiful. One must question how history would change if the Europeans of the 19th century and all people up to today would choose to learn and understand the cultures of others rather than pass judgments and make assumptions. Just as struggles between the upper and lower class were born from a lack of understanding for the other man’s condition in the early days of industrialization, the same is true for the times of imperialism. The English in Burmese Days have taken control of the area with no consideration to the plight of the native people. They are stronger and in their own world they are smarter. The strong dominate the weak, and the weak have no choice but to submit. One can be hopeful that strong societies will learn the rewards of building others up through education and sharing rather than tearing others down through dominance and discrimination. In the end, Burmese Days is a sad story. The protagonist, John Flory commits suicide over the loss of the woman he loves. However, the saddest part of the story is that the English never really discover the error of their superior attitude. Although these are fictional characters, it is clear that they will go through life with their self-righteous attitudes, and will never know what the Burmese can teach them. They have convinced themselves so thoroughly that their actions are justified; there is no hope for change for them, but there is still hope for us. Work Cited Hunt, Lynn et al. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Boston. Bedford/St. Martin’s. 2007. Orwell, George. Burmese Days. New York. Harcourt, Brace World, Inc. 1950. How to cite Burmese Days: an Example of Imperialism, Papers